State one way in which photoheterotrophs are similar to chemoheterotrophs

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Explanation:

The cell cycle is the process a cell undertakes to replicate all of its material and divide into two identical cells. In this article, we will look at the different stages of the cell cycle and what happens in each stage. We will also consider the regulation of the cell cycle, and look at some examples of dysregulation.

Phases of the Cell Cycle

The cell cycle is a 4-stage process consisting of Gap 1 (G1), Synthesis, Gap 2 (G2) and mitosis. An active eukaryotic cell will undergo these steps as it grows and divides. After completing the cycle, the cell either starts the process again from G1 or exits the cycle through G0. From G0, the cell can undergo terminal differentiation.

The stages in the cell cycle between one mitosis and the next, which include G1, S and G2, are known collectively as the interphase.

G1 phase

Cell increases in size

Cellular contents duplicated

S phase

DNA replication

Each of the 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) is replicated by the cell

G2 phase

Cell grows more

Organelles and proteins develop in preparation for cell division

M phase

Mitosis followed by cytokinesis (cell separation)

Formation of two identical daughter cells

G0 phase

While some cells are constantly dividing, some cell types are at rest. These cells may exit G1 and enter a resting state called G0. In G0, a cell is performing its function without actively preparing to divide. G0 is a permanent state for some cells, while others may re-start division if they get the right signals.

Regulation

The progression of cells through the cell cycle is controlled by checkpoints at different stages. These detect if a cell contains damaged DNA and ensure those cells do not replicate. The Restriction point (R) is located at G1 and is a key checkpoint. The vast majority of cells that pass through the R point will end up completing the entire cell cycle. Other checkpoints are located at the transitions between G1 and S, and G2 and M.

If damaged DNA is detected at any checkpoint, activation of the checkpoint results in increased protein p53 production. p53 is a tumour suppressor gene that stops the progression of the cell cycle and starts repair mechanisms for the damaged DNA. If this DNA cannot be repaired, then it ensures the cell undergoes apoptosis and can no longer replicate.

This cell cycle is also closely regulated by cyclins which control cell progression by activating cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) enzymes.

An example of a tumour suppressor protein would be retinoblastoma protein (Rb). Rb restricts the ability of a cell to progress from G1 to S phase in the cell cycle. CDK phosphorylates Rb to pRb, making it unable to restrict cell proliferation. This allows cells to divide normally in the cell cycle.