How did secular rulers challenge papal authority in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries?

They did it in two ways. One was that they had a political campaign called Unam Sanctum and that was supposed to weaken the pope. Another thing they did was that they created a council called the General Council who was supposed to oversee the pope which in reality meant that it was supposed to weaken him.

The Life of the law has not been logic; it has been experience. The felt necessities of the time, the prevalent moral and political theories, intuitions of public policy avowed or unconscious, even with the prejudices which judges share with their fellow men, have had a …

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