Where else do you see whiteness as pervasive on campus, and what proposal might you make to your administration to counteract it?

Operational definition

It is a definition of a variable in terms of precisely how it is to be measured. These measures generally fall into one of three broad categories: self-report measures, behavioral measures, and physiological measures. Generally, operational definitions should be concrete and measurable. Defining variables in this way will allow Dr. Nicole and her team to see if the AP Psychology test they are developing has validity. Also, they need operational definitions so as to understand how generalizable the findings of their test are. 

Standardization

It refers to the consistency, objectivity, and uniformity of how tests are administered and scored. Many psychological tests are about comparing an individual's score to other people's scores to see how that person did in a specific measure. It is important for Dr. Nicole and her team to understand the concept of standardization so that the results of the AP Psychology test they're developing can be empirically documented, and the test scores can be shown to have a relative degree of validity and reliability prior to data analysis, such that the results of the AP Psychology test is generalizable and replicable.

Normal curve

The normal curve is a hypothetical distribution of scores that is widely used in psychological testing. Normal curve distributions are very important in psychological testing and assessment because of the relationship between the mean, standard deviation, and percentiles, and is used to characterize complex constructs containing continuous random variables. It is important for Dr. Nicole and her team to know whether scores are normally distributed because it makes a difference in the kind of statistical tests that are appropriate for analyzing and interpreting the numbers. When measurements produce a normal distribution, certain things are predictable. In fact, many behavioral measurements result in normal distributions. 

Reliability, validity, and bias

Reliability is when a test or assessment consistently delivers the same results. Dr. Nicole and her team can strengthen the reliability of their test by providing data collectors and respondents with clear instructions on how to administer and complete the test.

Validity is when a test accurately measures what it intends to measure. Dr. Nicole and her team will know if their measurement is valid when it produces results addressing the specific outcome they wish to measure using the AP Psychology test. Validity is also supported when the results produced by the AP Psychology test can be corroborated by information from other sources.

Finally, tests should be free of bias, which is when different groups of people consistently have different scores on an assessment. Results are considered biased when they are systematically skewed or distorted, which is due to several reasons such as the over- or under-representation of particular groups in the dataset, and due to question wording that tends to encourage or discourage particular responses. The timing of data collection can also systematically bias results. These are the things that should be avoided by Dr. Nicole and her team.

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